Colonial troops or colonial army refers to various military units recruited from, or used as garrison troops in, colonial territories.
Colonial background
Such colonies may lie overseas or in areas dominated by neighboring land powers such as Imperial China or Tsarist Russia. Colonial troops have been used by imperial powers whether ancient (such as Carthage
[ Note for example: ] and
Auxilia), or modern (such as Great Britain, France, Netherlands, Denmark, the United States, Germany, Italy, Japan, Spain, and Portugal). Sometimes they have been recruited under local leaders, as
auxiliaries; and at other times organised directly by the colonial power.
[Karl Hack and Tobias Rettig 2006, eds, Colonial Armies in Southeast Asia]
Origins
At the beginning of the modern colonial period such troops were predominantly Europeans from the home army of the country concerned, but locally raised "native" troops were soon recruited. The latter normally served in separate units, at first under their own leaders, later under European officers.
The of the East India Company were an early example.[J. M. Roberts, page 399 "The Triumph of the West", ] By the mid 18th century, these troops were beginning to be directly recruited by the Company, allowing more systematic provisioning, drill and tactics, forming the presidency armies. During the Indian Rebellion of 1857, or "Sepoy Mutiny", many of the sepoys rebelled against the Company, leading to the end of Company rule in India. After the British government took British Raj in 1858, the sepoys formed the of the Indian Army, some of which survive to the present day in the national armies of India and Pakistan.
The French India and Portuguese India enclaves in the Indian subcontinent also recruited sepoys.[Crocé et al, pages 50–51, Les Troupes de Marine 1622–1984, ]
Basis of recruitment
In the larger colonial possessions the garrison was likely to comprise both locally recruited and white troops. The latter might be from the home or metropolitan army, from
doing their
military service or occasionally from mercenaries recruited outside the territories of the colonial power concerned. Units of european troops raised specifically for overseas service include those in France (
les marsouins within numerous
régiments d'infanterie coloniale), and in Spain (
Spanish Legion in the 1920s, continuing the legacy of the
Regimiento Fijo a century previous). The european regiments of the British East India Company were placed under the command of the Crown following the end of the
Indian Mutiny in 1858.
The French Army of Africa garrisoning French Algeria, Morocco, and Tunisia comprised all of these elements.
Many colonial powers sought to recruit minority peoples, such as the Ambonese people in the Netherlands East Indies (NEI),[Christopher M. Andrew, page 236 "France Overseas. The Great War and the Climax of French Imperial Expansion", 1981 Thames and Hudson Ltd, London]
Following the integration of the HEIC's european regiments from 1858 onwards, such as the 2nd Bengal (European) Fusiliers, the British Army rotated large numbers of its regular troops through India and other overseas possessions, augmenting the local colonial forces. However it is notable that British forces in Colonial Nigeria and other West African territories were under normal circumstances nearly all locally recruited, except for officers, some non-commissioned officers, and a few specialists.
Changes in colonial ruler usually meant the continuation of local recruitment - often from the same sources. Both the Spanish and United States rulers of the Philippines employed Filipino troops from the same regions and tribal groups. In the 1830s the original were volunteers from a tribal group which provided Mercenary for both the Turkish and French rulers of Algeria.[Jean-Louis Larcade, page 15, "Zouaves et Tirailleurs", ]
Settler militia
Colonial troops may comprise local forces drawn from settlers in colonies where these were numerous. In the 18th century, militia units were raised in colonial America. A large portion of the forces maintained by Spain and Portugal in Central America and South America until the early 19th century were locally recruited. Units of regulars (Regimiento Fijo) served alongside militia counterparts in Spanish Louisiana and other colonies.
Colonial militias in Australia, Canada, and New Zealand formed the origins of the modern armies of these countries.
Advantages
The advantages of locally-recruited troops in colonial warfare were several. They had familiarity with local terrain, language and culture. They were likely to be immune from disease in areas such as the West Indies and West Africa, which were notoriously unhealthy for European troops until the early 20th century. "Native" troops were usually recruited from tribal or other groups that had long-established martial traditions. It was not uncommon for colonial armies to favor the races that had shown the fiercest opposition to the initial conquest of a given territory (examples being the Sikhs of India and the
Rif tribesmen of Morocco). Colonial units could be employed in campaigns or conditions in which the use of
Conscription from metropolitan regiments would be politically unpopular. Also, the use of local troops often made the actual colonization more palatable for the locals.
Colonial troops could be used to garrison or subdue other territories than those in which they were recruited to avoid problems of conflicting loyalties. For example, Italy used Eritrean in Italian Libya and during both wars with Ethiopian Empire (1895 and 1936). Indian regiments garrisoned Aden, Singapore, and Hong Kong at various times in the 19th and the early 20th centuries. In the 1950s, the Portuguese used African troops from Mozambique to garrison Goa, and the Dutch had West Africans (Belanda Hitam) for service in the East Indies during much of the 19th century.[Kessel, Ineke van (Amsterdam 2005). Zwarte Hollanders: Afrikaanse soldaten in Nederlands-Indië. KIT Publishers. p. 213. ]
Disadvantages
Colonial troops were usually more lightly equipped than their metropolitan counterparts, who were usually given priority when new weaponry was issued. This apparent discrimination sometimes arose from the actual
light infantry or light
cavalry roles required of colonial forces, which were intended primarily for low intensity warfare against poorly-armed opponents in difficult terrain. Until World War II,
artillery or mechanized units rarely had indigenous troops although the Italian colonial army maintained a number of
Italian Eritrea, Somali, and Libyan mule artillery batteries, and there were locally-recruited mountain batteries in the Indian Army. The relative lack of up-to-date weaponry and training put colonial troops at an initial disadvantage when they faced modern opponents such as the German or Japanese armies of World War II.
Even earlier, the African and Indian troops that had been sent to France in 1914 encountered a climate, diet, and general conditions of service greatly different from those with which they were familiar. The Senegalese Tirailleurs of the French Army had to be withdrawn to southern France for recuperation and training during the harsh winters of the Western Front. All Indian troops, with the exception of some cavalry regiments, were withdrawn from the Western Front in October 1915, to serve in Mesopotamia, Palestine, and East Africa.
On the other hand, the regiments of the Indian Army were an army in their own right with responsibilities in the wider Empire. They were equipped as such, apart from lacking certain specialist capabilities, and took on the Ottoman Empire, the German Empire, the Italians and later the Japanese more or less on their own but were sometimes accompanied by a substantial British presence. In the early stages of World War I (November 1914), a British-Indian expeditionary force suffered a major defeat by well-trained and well-led German askaris (Schutztruppe) at the Battle of Tanga, in East Africa, but two divisions of Indian infantry also fought with distinction in France in a type of war and a climate for which they had been little prepared.[Philip Mason, "A Matter of Honour - an Account of the Indian Army, its Officers and Men", pages 412-413 ]
The selective recruitment of particular ethnic groups for service in the colonial military was frequently influenced by the perception of their military abilities and loyalty towards the colonial regime. On occasion, these restrictions were overturned due to a lack of manpower, especially during and in the run-up to World War II.
Use outside areas of origin
By the 20th century, colonial troops were often being used outside the boundaries of their territories of origin. Troops from France's North African colonies served in the
Crimean War, the Franco-Prussian War, and most notably in the trenches of World War I in France itself.
[Crocé et al, pages 289-291 Les Troupes de Marine, ] France used African troops in World War II and during the subsequent Indochina and
. Indian troops served in Europe in large numbers during both World Wars, as well as in the Middle East, Malaya, Burma, and North Africa in World War II. The
Regulares (Moorish infantry and cavalry) of Spanish Morocco
played a major role in the Spanish Civil War of 1936–1939.
[Hugh Thomas, pages 357–360 "The Spanish Civil War", Penguin Books 2003] Japan recruited levies from Korea and Taiwan during the period of colonial rule in both countries. Italy employed
Dubats from Italian Somaliland,
[Piero Crociani, "Le Uniformi dell'A.O.I." (Somalia 1889-1941), pages 24-25 la Roccia 1980] together with Eritrean and Libyan units in the conquest of Ethiopia during 1936; Eritrean troops were also used in the occupation of Libya from 1911 to 1935 and a full division of Libyan infantry participated in the Ethiopian campaign. Portugal employed
Ronga language troops from Mozambique in Angola during World War I, also using them in the garrisons of
Portuguese India and
Portuguese Macau until the 1950s. During the 19th century, several thousand West African soldiers were recruited under the name of "Belanda Hitam" by the Dutch colonial authorities for military service in the Dutch East Indies.
[Kessel, Ineke van (Amsterdam 2005). Zwarte Hollanders: Afrikaanse soldaten in Nederlands-Indië. KIT Publishers. p. 213. ]
United States
Prior to the passage of the Jones–Shafroth Act in 1917, granting full US citizenship to
Puerto Ricans,
[The U.S. citizenship was extended to residents of Puerto Rico by virtue of the Jones Act, chap. 190, 39 Stat. 951 (1971) (codified at 48 U.S.C. § 731 (1987))] the US Army's 65th Infantry Regiment, was made up of Puerto Rican enlistees and a mix of American and Puerto Rican officers.
The unit was formed in 1899, immediately following America's annexation of the colony in the Spanish–American War.
The demographic composition of the 65th stayed generally the same after 1917 (though composed of US citizens it was no longer be a "colonial" regiment), and went onto to serve with distinction in every major US conflict since.
The US Army also organized and trained multiple colonial units during the American colonization of the Philippines from 1901 until 1946 when the Philippines became independent. These troops including the Philippine Scouts (most notably), the Philippine Constabulary, and eventually the Philippine Army in general. They were usually trained by the US military and initially led by American officers. Philippine colonial soldiers were amongst the first members of the US Army to engage in direct combat against the Japanese during World War II.
Symbolism
Colonial troops sometimes served as symbols or icons of imperial power. Representative detachments of Indian and other empire forces came to London to parade as part of
coronation or other major celebrations during the late 19th and 20th centuries. French
and
paraded in Paris on the
Bastille Day each year until 1962. Until at least the 1930s, British Indian and French, Italian, and Spanish North African regiments were notable for their picturesque
which incorporated native features such as colorful
, cloaks, and sashes.
Such features were an aid to voluntary recruiting as well as ensuring a high-profile for the overseas territories represented.
End of empires
The end of the
saw mixed outcomes for colonial troops. Where the transition was a relatively peaceful one the existing colonial units were likely to form the basis of the new national armies. Where there had been extended conflict those locally recruited troops who had remained loyal to their former colonial rulers might find themselves regarded as collaborators and subject to reprisals after independence. This was particularly the case in Algeria in 1962
(see
) and in
Guinea-Bissau during 1973/74.
Examples
See also
Further reading
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Karl Hack and Tobias Rettig, eds. (2006), Colonial Armies in Southeast Asia.
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Philip Mason (1974), A Matter of Honour: An Account of the Indian Army. .
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